Evolution: process => that transformed => life om earth => from earliest form to vast diversity => that is obser today. Evolutionary charge => Mainly om => interactions between population of organisms and their environment. Darwin => First person to say => species of today habe evolved from ancestral species. Darwin => Natural selection. To explain diversity of life and inter relations among organisms. Two school of thought => in earlier 19th century.
Creationists believed in Theory of Special Creation: All living things came to existence in their present forms specially and specifically by nature.
Evolutionists: Theory of natural Selection.
Carolus Linnaeous: Classified organisms => same species in same => genius and family. Believed in divine creation and binomial permanent creation nomenclature for naming species.
Aristotle: Organisms evolved through time. One type of organism give life to another. Organisms evolved from simple to complex form.
Lamarck: Theory of evolution.
Malthus: Publised essay => principle of population.
Lyell: published principles of Geology.
Darwin: voyage of Beagle => wrote essay on " Origin tax anomic system of Linnaeous => focal point species."
Wallace: Sent his theory to darwin in darwin theory.
Mendel: Published paper on inheritance.
Cuvier: science of paleontology and explained earth history by catastrophism.
Hydrothermal vent: Life may begun in oceans, under water hot springs. These vents => supplied energy and raw material for origin and survival of early life.
Archeobacteria: Archeobacteria and bear temperature => 120°C. Group of bacteria. Less evolutionary changes than any other specie. Supports vents hypothesis. First photosynthetic organisms => H²S => as a source of H² for reduction of CO² to sugar. 42O million year ago => enough protective zone => life on land possible. Change of atmosphere => reducing to oxidizing life could no longer arise abiotically. 3.5 billion year ago => Prokaryotes. 1.5 billion year ago => Eukaryotes.
Two hypothesis on evolution of Eukaryotic cell:
Endosymbiont hypothesis => Lynn Margolis.
Aerobic bacteria => develop in => mitochondria => site of aerobic respiration.
Most energy conservation in Eukaryotic cell. Mitochondria like endosymbionts => aerobic respiration. Prokaryotes ingested Eukaryotes and stablize them instead of digesting. e.g: Euglena => arisen through ingestion of Prokaryotes (Spirochete).
Prokaryotic cell membrane invagination fold inwards to enclose copies of its genetic material. Resulted in formation of several double-membrane bounded organelles.
Inheritance of Acquired Character:
Jean Baptiste Lamarck => Theory of evolution => 1809 => Darwin. Lamarck => Those body organs used extensively become larger and stronger while those not used deteriate.
• Giraffe stretched neck.
• Blacksmith develop bigger bicep in arm.
• Proved wrong => August Wiseman.
Charles Darwin: Born in England in Shrewsbury => 1809. Collected Galapagos among birds. 1836 => returned to great Britain => origin at new Species => arise from an ancestoral by gradual accumulation of adaptation to different environment. Essay => origin of species and natural selection.
Two main points:
1. Descent with Modification: All organisms related through descent from some common ancestor. Evolution => Tree life concept => with all branches and common ancestor.
2. Natural Selection: Competition among large species of organisms. Fraction of organism surviving each year. Organism survival depends on hereditary constitution to environment. Those fit best to environment => leave more off springs. Survival and reproduction of organisms => lead to graduate leading to => evolution of new species. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
Neo- Darwinism: Modern synthesis => 1940. Population genetics => genetics variations within population.
Darwinism and Mendelism => 1939 => work reconciled => and genetic basis of variation and natural selection worked out. Integrated ideas from many different fields.
Evidence of evolution: Biogeography => graphical distribution of species. Fossil record => strong evidence of evolution. Most fossils => found in => Sedimentary rocks. Oldest known fossils => prokaryotes. Fossil fishes => amphians => reptiles => mammals and birds Fossil fishes => earliest vertebrate. Actual remains or traces of organism in ancient times. Comparative anatomy anatomical similarities between species grouped togethers.
Homologous Organs:
Structure same.
Function difference.
Forelimbs of man, bat, horse, whale flower parts of flowering plants.
Divergent evolution.
Analogous organs:
Function same but structure different.
Convergent evolution.
Wings of bats, birds and insects.
oldest homologous structure => Vestigal organs.
Vestigal organs:
Historically remnants of structure that had important function in past but presently no longer essential.
e.g: Whale retains. Pelvic and leg bones as useless vestiges, appendix in carnivores, ear muscle in man, cocox.
Comparative embryology: closely related organism => similar stage in embryomic development. e.g: a vertebrate embryos => gill pouches on sides of their throats. Similarities between fishes, frogs, snakes, birds and human more apparent than differences. When development progress => vertebrates diverse more and more. Infishes gill pouches developed into gills in terrestrial vertebrates => embryonic structures modified for other functions.
Molecular Biology: evolutionary relationship among species reflected in their DNA and proteins => genes. e.g: human and bacteria have some protein in common. e.g: cytochrome => respiratory protein found in all aerobic species.
Genepool: Total agregate of genes in population at any time. All alleles at all gene loci Aa AA. Diploid specie => each locus and represented twice in genome of an individual => may be homozygous or heterozygous. All members of population are homozygous allele is fixed in gene pool. Two or more allele of gene => each having relative frequency in gene pool.
Haray Weinberg Theorem: Describes allele frequencies in population at equilibrium. Frequency of genotype of non-evolving population. 1908=> Frequency of alleles and gene type in population gene pool. Constant over generation unless acted by agents other thsn S€xual recombination. So Shuffling of alleles in meiosis has no effect on genetic structure of population.
Factors affecting gene frequency:
Mutation: mutatin above cannot change frequency of allele much. Entering a foreign country leaves own country.
Migration: immigration and emigration cause change in gene pool
Gene Drift: Change in frequency of alleles at because that occurs by chance. In small populations, such fluctuating many loss particular alleles => individuals feats to reproduce. Genes lost from population.
Non-random mating => In-breeding => does not alter alleles frequency but lessons proportion of heterozygous individual. Individuals with certain genotype make with one another on random basis. Allele frequency differ greatly from those predicted by hardy Weinberg.
Evolutionists: Theory of natural Selection.
Carolus Linnaeous: Classified organisms => same species in same => genius and family. Believed in divine creation and binomial permanent creation nomenclature for naming species.
Aristotle: Organisms evolved through time. One type of organism give life to another. Organisms evolved from simple to complex form.
Lamarck: Theory of evolution.
Malthus: Publised essay => principle of population.
Lyell: published principles of Geology.
Darwin: voyage of Beagle => wrote essay on " Origin tax anomic system of Linnaeous => focal point species."
Wallace: Sent his theory to darwin in darwin theory.
Mendel: Published paper on inheritance.
Cuvier: science of paleontology and explained earth history by catastrophism.
Hydrothermal vent: Life may begun in oceans, under water hot springs. These vents => supplied energy and raw material for origin and survival of early life.
Archeobacteria: Archeobacteria and bear temperature => 120°C. Group of bacteria. Less evolutionary changes than any other specie. Supports vents hypothesis. First photosynthetic organisms => H²S => as a source of H² for reduction of CO² to sugar. 42O million year ago => enough protective zone => life on land possible. Change of atmosphere => reducing to oxidizing life could no longer arise abiotically. 3.5 billion year ago => Prokaryotes. 1.5 billion year ago => Eukaryotes.
Two hypothesis on evolution of Eukaryotic cell:
Endosymbiont hypothesis => Lynn Margolis.
Aerobic bacteria => develop in => mitochondria => site of aerobic respiration.
Most energy conservation in Eukaryotic cell. Mitochondria like endosymbionts => aerobic respiration. Prokaryotes ingested Eukaryotes and stablize them instead of digesting. e.g: Euglena => arisen through ingestion of Prokaryotes (Spirochete).
Prokaryotic cell membrane invagination fold inwards to enclose copies of its genetic material. Resulted in formation of several double-membrane bounded organelles.
Inheritance of Acquired Character:
Jean Baptiste Lamarck => Theory of evolution => 1809 => Darwin. Lamarck => Those body organs used extensively become larger and stronger while those not used deteriate.
• Giraffe stretched neck.
• Blacksmith develop bigger bicep in arm.
• Proved wrong => August Wiseman.
Charles Darwin: Born in England in Shrewsbury => 1809. Collected Galapagos among birds. 1836 => returned to great Britain => origin at new Species => arise from an ancestoral by gradual accumulation of adaptation to different environment. Essay => origin of species and natural selection.
Two main points:
1. Descent with Modification: All organisms related through descent from some common ancestor. Evolution => Tree life concept => with all branches and common ancestor.
2. Natural Selection: Competition among large species of organisms. Fraction of organism surviving each year. Organism survival depends on hereditary constitution to environment. Those fit best to environment => leave more off springs. Survival and reproduction of organisms => lead to graduate leading to => evolution of new species. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
Neo- Darwinism: Modern synthesis => 1940. Population genetics => genetics variations within population.
Darwinism and Mendelism => 1939 => work reconciled => and genetic basis of variation and natural selection worked out. Integrated ideas from many different fields.
Evidence of evolution: Biogeography => graphical distribution of species. Fossil record => strong evidence of evolution. Most fossils => found in => Sedimentary rocks. Oldest known fossils => prokaryotes. Fossil fishes => amphians => reptiles => mammals and birds Fossil fishes => earliest vertebrate. Actual remains or traces of organism in ancient times. Comparative anatomy anatomical similarities between species grouped togethers.
Homologous Organs:
Structure same.
Function difference.
Forelimbs of man, bat, horse, whale flower parts of flowering plants.
Divergent evolution.
Analogous organs:
Function same but structure different.
Convergent evolution.
Wings of bats, birds and insects.
oldest homologous structure => Vestigal organs.
Vestigal organs:
Historically remnants of structure that had important function in past but presently no longer essential.
e.g: Whale retains. Pelvic and leg bones as useless vestiges, appendix in carnivores, ear muscle in man, cocox.
Comparative embryology: closely related organism => similar stage in embryomic development. e.g: a vertebrate embryos => gill pouches on sides of their throats. Similarities between fishes, frogs, snakes, birds and human more apparent than differences. When development progress => vertebrates diverse more and more. Infishes gill pouches developed into gills in terrestrial vertebrates => embryonic structures modified for other functions.
Molecular Biology: evolutionary relationship among species reflected in their DNA and proteins => genes. e.g: human and bacteria have some protein in common. e.g: cytochrome => respiratory protein found in all aerobic species.
Genepool: Total agregate of genes in population at any time. All alleles at all gene loci Aa AA. Diploid specie => each locus and represented twice in genome of an individual => may be homozygous or heterozygous. All members of population are homozygous allele is fixed in gene pool. Two or more allele of gene => each having relative frequency in gene pool.
Haray Weinberg Theorem: Describes allele frequencies in population at equilibrium. Frequency of genotype of non-evolving population. 1908=> Frequency of alleles and gene type in population gene pool. Constant over generation unless acted by agents other thsn S€xual recombination. So Shuffling of alleles in meiosis has no effect on genetic structure of population.
Factors affecting gene frequency:
Mutation: mutatin above cannot change frequency of allele much. Entering a foreign country leaves own country.
Migration: immigration and emigration cause change in gene pool
Gene Drift: Change in frequency of alleles at because that occurs by chance. In small populations, such fluctuating many loss particular alleles => individuals feats to reproduce. Genes lost from population.
Non-random mating => In-breeding => does not alter alleles frequency but lessons proportion of heterozygous individual. Individuals with certain genotype make with one another on random basis. Allele frequency differ greatly from those predicted by hardy Weinberg.
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